Which term encompasses approaches for determining causality when randomized experiments are not possible?

• A. Gold Standard
• B. Causal Inference
• C. Empirical Research
• D. Research Question

Answer: (B)

Causal inference is the set of methods and reasoning used to estimate cause-and-effect relationships when randomized experiments aren’t possible. It rests on counterfactual thinking—imagining what would have happened to the same units if they had not been exposed—so we can attribute observed differences to the exposure rather than to confounding factors. In practice, tools like propensity score matching, instrumental variables, difference-in-differences, regression discontinuity, and natural experiments are all part of causal inference, each with its own assumptions and use cases. The other terms refer to either the ideal standard (randomized trials) or to what you’re trying to study, not to the methods for uncovering causality from nonexperimental data.